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Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping — Guides, Updates & Practical Insights

Indian Accounting Standards (AS 1-29), bookkeeping principles, GST accounting entries, and valuation rules

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The complete Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping guide

ACCOUNTING STANDARDS & BOOKKEEPING · COMPLETE GUIDE

Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting under Ind AS: its status, the objective of financial reporting, qualitative characteristics, the elements, recognition and derecognition, measurement bases and presentation

The Framework is not an Ind AS and overrides no Ind AS (paragraph SP1.2). Its purpose is to help ICAI write consistent standards, to help preparers form accounting policies where no standard applies, and to help everyone read the standards (paragraph SP1.1). An asset is a present economic resource...

Updated 09 Oct 20269 min read✓ Reviewed

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Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping

When the law requires a valuation report in India: the Companies Act triggers, who appoints the registered valuer, and where income-tax and FEMA ask for a different valuation

Where the Companies Act requires a valuation, section 247 says who values and who appoints. The Act itself names a registered valuer in a handful of places: a share issue to chosen persons, a non-cash deal with a director, a debt restructuring scheme before the Tribunal, a buy-out of the minority...

7 min read09 Oct 2026

Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping

Discounted cash flow (DCF) valuation of an unlisted company: forecasting the cash flows, choosing the discount rate, the terminal value and the equity value, with a worked example for a small manufacturer

DCF = forecast cash flow available to the firm (FCFF) for each year, discount each at the cost of capital, add a terminal value for the years after the forecast, and deduct net debt to reach equity value. Terminal value by constant growth = FCFF in the last year × (1 + g) ÷ (discount rate − g)...

6 min read09 Oct 2026

Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping

Net asset value (NAV) method of business valuation: book value, adjusted net assets and value per share, and when the asset approach fits, with a worked example for a property-holding company

NAV = value of all assets − all liabilities, including claims ranking ahead of equity such as preference capital. Book NAV uses the figures in the balance sheet; adjusted NAV restates assets to realisable or replacement value, brings in liabilities that are not on the books, and allows for tax on...

6 min read09 Oct 2026

Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping

Comparable company multiples method: EV/EBITDA, P/E, price to book and revenue multiples applied to an unlisted company, with a worked example for a regional distributor

Multiple = value of the comparable ÷ its earnings measure. Apply the chosen multiple to your own normalised earnings measure. Enterprise multiples (EV/EBITDA, EV/revenue) give enterprise value, from which net debt is deducted; equity multiples (P/E, price to book) give equity value directly. The...

5 min read09 Oct 2026

Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping

From enterprise value to equity value per share: net debt, surplus assets, preference shares, control premium and the discount for lack of marketability, with a worked example for a private company

Equity value = enterprise value − debt and debt-like items + cash and surplus assets − preference capital. Value per share = equity value ÷ fully diluted equity shares. A control premium may be added for a block that carries control, and a discount for lack of marketability may be taken off a block...

6 min read09 Oct 2026

Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping

Small business and MSME valuation: normalising the profit, capitalisation of maintainable earnings and a cross-check on net assets, with a worked example for a proprietorship being sold

Maintainable earnings = the profit a new owner could expect, after normalising the accounts. Value of the business = maintainable earnings ÷ capitalisation rate. Goodwill = that value − adjusted net assets. The capitalisation rate is the valuer's assumption, not a market figure, so show the value...

6 min read09 Oct 2026

Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping

Business model types and unit economics: how a business creates, delivers and captures value, the common revenue models, and contribution per customer, with a worked example for a subscription service

A business model describes who the customer is, what is offered, how it reaches the customer, how money comes in, what it costs and what resources it needs. Unit economics measures one customer: revenue less variable cost is the contribution; the cost of acquiring the customer, divided by monthly...

6 min read09 Oct 2026

Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping

How to build a financial model: the input sheet, revenue and cost drivers, the three linked statements, balance checks and scenarios, with a worked example for a start-up restaurant

A sound model has four layers: inputs (every assumption, labelled, on one sheet), workings (revenue, cost, asset and debt schedules driven by the inputs), outputs (profit and loss, balance sheet, cash flow, linked) and checks (the balance sheet balances, cash agrees, no typed-in numbers in the...

6 min read09 Oct 2026

Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping

Term loan appraisal from the borrower's side: debt service coverage ratio (DSCR), interest coverage, promoter contribution and the repayment schedule, with a worked example for a small manufacturer

DSCR = cash available for debt service ÷ (interest + principal repayment due in the year). Interest coverage = operating profit ÷ interest. Both are read year by year and on average, and the loan size, tenor and moratorium are the levers that move them. Lenders define the cash figure in different...

6 min read09 Oct 2026

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Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping Bookkeeping

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Audit of property, plant and equipment and intangible assets: the assertions, what the auditor verifies for additions, disposals, depreciation, title and impairment, and the documents to keep ready

Updated 09 Oct 2026 · 7 min

SRS 4410 (Revised), Compilation Engagements: when the standard applies, what the practitioner does and does not do, misleading information, documentation and the compilation report

Updated 09 Oct 2026 · 7 min

Accounting concepts, principles and conventions: entity, money measurement, going concern, accrual, consistency, matching, prudence and materiality, each with an example

Updated 09 Oct 2026 · 5 min

Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping Audit

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When the law requires a valuation report in India: the Companies Act triggers, who appoints the registered valuer, and where income-tax and FEMA ask for a different valuation

Updated 09 Oct 2026 · 7 min

Discounted cash flow (DCF) valuation of an unlisted company: forecasting the cash flows, choosing the discount rate, the terminal value and the equity value, with a worked example for a small manufacturer

Updated 09 Oct 2026 · 6 min

Net asset value (NAV) method of business valuation: book value, adjusted net assets and value per share, and when the asset approach fits, with a worked example for a property-holding company

Updated 09 Oct 2026 · 6 min

Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping Financial Statements

View all Financial Statements →

When the law requires a valuation report in India: the Companies Act triggers, who appoints the registered valuer, and where income-tax and FEMA ask for a different valuation

Updated 09 Oct 2026 · 7 min

How to build a financial model: the input sheet, revenue and cost drivers, the three linked statements, balance checks and scenarios, with a worked example for a start-up restaurant

Updated 09 Oct 2026 · 6 min

Term loan appraisal from the borrower's side: debt service coverage ratio (DSCR), interest coverage, promoter contribution and the repayment schedule, with a worked example for a small manufacturer

Updated 09 Oct 2026 · 6 min

Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping Accounting Standards

View all Accounting Standards →

SIA 110, SIA 130, SIA 140 and SIA 150: the nature of assurance an internal auditor gives, and the internal audit of risk management, governance and compliance with laws and regulations

Updated 09 Oct 2026 · 8 min

Lessor accounting, lease modifications and sale and leaseback under Ind AS 116: finance and operating leases, reassessment and modification by the lessee, and the seller-lessee's gain, with a worked example

Updated 09 Oct 2026 · 8 min

Deferred tax under Ind AS 12: tax base, taxable and deductible temporary differences, unused tax losses, measurement and where the tax is recognised, with a worked example

Updated 09 Oct 2026 · 8 min

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01Accounting Entries under GST: Complete Journal Entry Guide with Examples 02AS 11 Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates: Complete Guide 03AS 18 Related Party Disclosures: Identification, Transactions and Disclosure Requirements 04GST Valuation Rules: Section 15 CGST Act and Rules 27-35 Explained 05AS 13 Accounting for Investments: Classification, Valuation and Disclosure

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Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping — Guides, Updates & Practical Insights

The complete Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping guide

Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting under Ind AS: its status, the objective of financial reporting, qualitative characteristics, the elements, recognition and derecognition, measurement bases and presentation

Latest Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping insights

When the law requires a valuation report in India: the Companies Act triggers, who appoints the registered valuer, and where income-tax and FEMA ask for a different valuation

Discounted cash flow (DCF) valuation of an unlisted company: forecasting the cash flows, choosing the discount rate, the terminal value and the equity value, with a worked example for a small manufacturer

Net asset value (NAV) method of business valuation: book value, adjusted net assets and value per share, and when the asset approach fits, with a worked example for a property-holding company

Comparable company multiples method: EV/EBITDA, P/E, price to book and revenue multiples applied to an unlisted company, with a worked example for a regional distributor

From enterprise value to equity value per share: net debt, surplus assets, preference shares, control premium and the discount for lack of marketability, with a worked example for a private company

Small business and MSME valuation: normalising the profit, capitalisation of maintainable earnings and a cross-check on net assets, with a worked example for a proprietorship being sold

Business model types and unit economics: how a business creates, delivers and captures value, the common revenue models, and contribution per customer, with a worked example for a subscription service

How to build a financial model: the input sheet, revenue and cost drivers, the three linked statements, balance checks and scenarios, with a worked example for a start-up restaurant

Term loan appraisal from the borrower's side: debt service coverage ratio (DSCR), interest coverage, promoter contribution and the repayment schedule, with a worked example for a small manufacturer

Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping by topic

Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping Bookkeeping

Audit of property, plant and equipment and intangible assets: the assertions, what the auditor verifies for additions, disposals, depreciation, title and impairment, and the documents to keep ready

SRS 4410 (Revised), Compilation Engagements: when the standard applies, what the practitioner does and does not do, misleading information, documentation and the compilation report

Accounting concepts, principles and conventions: entity, money measurement, going concern, accrual, consistency, matching, prudence and materiality, each with an example

Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping Audit

When the law requires a valuation report in India: the Companies Act triggers, who appoints the registered valuer, and where income-tax and FEMA ask for a different valuation

Discounted cash flow (DCF) valuation of an unlisted company: forecasting the cash flows, choosing the discount rate, the terminal value and the equity value, with a worked example for a small manufacturer

Net asset value (NAV) method of business valuation: book value, adjusted net assets and value per share, and when the asset approach fits, with a worked example for a property-holding company

Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping Financial Statements

When the law requires a valuation report in India: the Companies Act triggers, who appoints the registered valuer, and where income-tax and FEMA ask for a different valuation

How to build a financial model: the input sheet, revenue and cost drivers, the three linked statements, balance checks and scenarios, with a worked example for a start-up restaurant

Term loan appraisal from the borrower's side: debt service coverage ratio (DSCR), interest coverage, promoter contribution and the repayment schedule, with a worked example for a small manufacturer

Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping Accounting Standards

SIA 110, SIA 130, SIA 140 and SIA 150: the nature of assurance an internal auditor gives, and the internal audit of risk management, governance and compliance with laws and regulations

Lessor accounting, lease modifications and sale and leaseback under Ind AS 116: finance and operating leases, reassessment and modification by the lessee, and the seller-lessee's gain, with a worked example

Deferred tax under Ind AS 12: tax base, taxable and deductible temporary differences, unused tax losses, measurement and where the tax is recognised, with a worked example

Most read Accounting Standards & Bookkeeping articles

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